International Journal of Plant & Soil Science

Fertilizer Use Efficiency in Climate-smart Agriculture: Balancing Yield, Emissions, and Soil Health

Himshikha — 2026-05-28

Global agriculture faces a compound challenge: producing sufficient food for a growing population while dramatically reducing its environmental footprint. Fertilizers—particularly synthetic nitrogen compounds—underpin modern crop yields, yet their overuse drives nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, nitrogen leaching, soil acidification, and threats to planetary biogeochemical cycles. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers an integrative framework that seeks simultaneously to raise productivity, build resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Central to this framework is fertilizer use efficiency (FUE), defined broadly as the ratio of crop output relative to nutrient inputs. This critical review synthesises evidence across the global literature on the agronomic, environmental, and soil-health dimensions of FUE in CSA systems. Drawing on peer-reviewed research published predominantly since 2001 to present; it evaluates the mechanisms by which conventional fertilizer management contributes to GHG emissions and soil degradation; examines enhanced-efficiency fertilizers, precision agriculture, integrated soil fertility management, biochar, cover crops, and biological nitrogen fixation as mitigation pathways; and assesses the tensions between maximising yield and minimising environmental harm. The review identifies significant advances in FUE technologies and management but also highlights persistent knowledge gaps, particularly around context-specific adoption barriers in smallholder systems, long-term soil health trajectories, and coherent policy architectures. A synthesis of the evidence suggests that no single intervention is adequate; rather, portfolios of complementary, site-adapted practices—underpinned by robust policy incentives—are necessary to reconcile food security, climate mitigation, and soil health within planetary boundaries.

Climate-Resilient Cultivation of Rice under Agronomic Bio-fortification with Iron and Zinc

S. S. T Aarthi — 2026-05-28

Iron and zinc deficiencies are the major global public health challenges, in rice-dependent regions. The nutritional intakes fall short of the Recommended Dietary Allowances due to deficiencies in two important micronutrients, leading to low productivity, widespread malnutrition, impaired cognitive development, and weakened immunity. Rice is a staple food for most of the Asian continent, but conventional practice like the transplanted method leads to higher environmental pollution. Hence, direct-seeded rice is a more sustainable alternative. Bio-fortification of rice offers a sustainable and cost-effective strategy to enhance grain micronutrient quantity and improve nutritional security among people with limited access to diverse foods. Among the various bio-fortification pathways, agronomic bio-fortification has emerged as a practical approach that can be readily integrated into the prevailing production systems. This review highlights about nutri-priming which enhances early seedling vigour and micronutrient uptake, soil fertilisation which helps in creating baseline nutrient reserves, foliar application which is essential for guarantee micronutrient delivery at critical growth stages and microbial inoculants, such as iron and zinc solubilizing bacteria to improve micronutrient availability through biochemical transformation. Optimization of the agronomic bio-fortification protocols along with their integration with the recommended dose of fertilizers can substantially contribute to reducing micronutrient deficiency and achieving long-term nutritional resilience.

Effect of Organic Manures and Micronutrient Application on Growth and Yield of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Sudarshan Panchal — 2026-05-26

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important pulse crop; however, its productivity is frequently constrained by low soil organic matter content and micronutrient deficiencies. In this context, a field experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2025–26 at the Agricultural Farm of Career Point University, Alaniya, Kota (Rajasthan), to assess the effects of organic manures and foliar-applied micronutrients on the growth and yield performance of chickpea (variety GNG 1581). The experiment was arranged in a factorial randomised block design (FRBD) comprising 12 treatment combinations with three replications. The treatments included three levels of organic manure (control, vermicompost at 2.0 t ha⁻¹, and farmyard manure (FYM) at 5 t ha⁻¹) and four foliar micronutrient applications (control, zinc at 0.5%, boron at 0.2%, and iron at 0.2%). The experimental soil was clay loam in texture, alkaline in reaction (pH 8.35), and characterised by low organic carbon content. Results indicated that the application of Vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha^-1 significantly enhanced all growth attributes, recording the highest plant height (45.60 cm), number of branches per plant (9.65), and dry matter accumulation (34.90 g) at harvest. Yield studies further demonstrated the superiority of this treatment, which registered the maximum grain yield (1980 kg ha^-1), straw yield (3680 kg ha^-1), and harvest index (34.98%) over FYM @ 5 t ha^-1 and the control. Among the micronutrient treatments, the foliar application of Zinc @ 0.5% consistently outperformed the others. It maximized vegetative growth, leading to the highest plant height (45.45 cm), branches per plant (9.70), and dry matter accumulation (35.20 g). Consequently, the Zinc treatment also produced the highest grain yield (2010 kg ha^-1), straw yield (3710 kg ha^-1), and harvest index (35.13%), significantly surpassing the Boron, Iron, and control treatments. The strategic integration of Vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha^-1 and foliar Zinc @ 0.5% emerged as the most effective nutrient management approach for optimizing the overall growth and yield of chickpea.

Influence of Chlormequat Chloride and Maleic Hydrazide on Yield and Yield Components of Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

K. Tressa Naidu — 2026-05-26

Rice productivity is often affected by climate variability and lodging, especially in coastal regions, leading to yield losses and poor grain quality. Plant growth regulators such as chlormequat chloride and maleic hydrazide are used to modify plant growth and improve assimilate distribution, lodging resistance, and yield performance in rice. A field investigation was carried out on rice during the rabi, 2020 - 21 at the wetland farm of S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. The goal was to study the effects of foliar application of maleic hydrazide and chlormequat chloride on rice yield and its attributes. The experiment followed a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with seven treatments and three replications. Twenty one day old rice seedlings were transplanted at two seedlings per hill. The treatments included control (T₁), maleic hydrazide at 5000 ppm (T₂), 10,000 ppm (T₃), and 15,000 ppm (T₄). It also included chlormequat chloride at 250 ppm (T₅), 500 ppm (T₆), and 750 ppm (T₇), applied as a foliar spray during the flowering stage. Observations on productive tillers, plant^-1, grains panicle^-1, filled grains panicle^-1, grain yield, straw yield, and test weight were recorded and analysed statistically using ANOVA. Significant differences appeared among the treatments for all studied parameters. Chlormequat chloride at 500 ppm (T₆) showed the highest results for productive tillers plant^-1 (10.00), grains panicle^-1(185.33), filled grains panicle^-1(173.66), grain yield (5248 kg ha⁻¹), straw yield (7248 kg ha⁻¹), and test weight (20.66 g). The untreated control had the lowest values for all yield attributes and parameters. The improved performance from growth retardant treatments resulted from better assimilate distribution, higher photosynthetic efficiency, and improved grain filling. The study concluded that foliar application of chlormequat chloride @ 500 ppm is an effective method to boost rice productivity.

Influence of Tillage, Residue, and Nutrient Management Practices on Physico-chemical and Biological Properties of Soil under Salt-affected Conditions in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Crop

Manish Kumar — 2026-05-26

Sustainable soil management practices such as conservation tillage, residue retention, and integrated nutrient management are important for improving soil health and crop productivity under salt-affected conditions. The field experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2022-23 at the Research Farm, School of Agriculture, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddh Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, India. The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three replications. The main plot treatments consisted of two tillage systems, viz., zero tillage and conventional tillage. The sub-plot treatments comprised five residue and nutrient management practices: 100% rice residue (RN₁), no residue + 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) (RN₂), 100% rice residue + 75% RDF (RN₃), 100% rice residue + 100% RDF (RN₄), and 100% rice residue + 125% RDF (RN₅). The results revealed that tillage and residue–nutrient management practices had a non-significant effect on soil pH, organic carbon, and electrical conductivity. However, relatively higher values of organic carbon were observed under zero tillage and RN₅ (100% rice residue + 125% RDF), followed by RN₁ (100% rice residue). In contrast, available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) were significantly influenced by the treatments, with values increasing over the initial soil status. Zero tillage in combination with residue and nutrient management practices significantly enhanced the availability of N, P, and K in the soil after crop harvest. The highest available N, P, and K were recorded under RN₅ (100% rice residue + 125% RDF). Furthermore, soil biological properties were markedly influenced by the treatments. The maximum microbial population of bacteria (39.06 × 10⁶ CFU g⁻¹), fungi (14.13 × 10³ CFU g⁻¹), and actinomycetes (21.63 × 10⁴ CFU g⁻¹) was recorded under zero tillage. Among residue and nutrient management practices, the highest microbial population of bacteria (39.79 × 10⁶ CFU g⁻¹), fungi (14.88 × 10³ CFU g⁻¹), and actinomycetes (22.12 × 10⁴ CFU g⁻¹) was observed with RN₅ (100% rice residue + 125% RDF).

Synergistic Effects on Silicon and Selenium on Growth, Yield and Protein Content in Blackgram (Vigna mungo L.) Grown in Coastal Saline Soil

K. Sriram — 2026-05-27

Salinity stress severely limits pulse productivity in coastal agro-ecosystems by inducing ionic imbalance and oxidative damage. Although silicon and selenium are known to enhance plant stress tolerance individually, information on their combined application under coastal saline soil conditions is limited. A pot experiment was conducted during January to April 2024 at the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India, to evaluate the interactive effects of silicon and selenium on growth, yield and protein content of blackgram (Vigna mungo L.). Treatments consisted of graded levels of silicon and selenium applied individually and in combination along with recommended dose of fertilizers. The combined application of selenium at the rate of 2 ppm and silicon at the rate of 50 kg ha⁻¹ significantly improved plant height, dry matter production, nodulation, yield attributes and grain yield (1224 kg ha⁻¹) compared to control. Protein content and protein yield were also maximized under the same treatment. The improved performance may be attributed to enhanced nutrient uptake, improved physiological efficiency and alleviation of salinity-induced stress. The study highlights the synergistic role of silicon and selenium in improving productivity and grain quality of blackgram under coastal saline soil conditions.

Uses and Conservation Practices of Two Plants with Melliferous Potential in the Binah Prefecture of Togo: Vitex doniana Sweet (Lamiaceae) and Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC. (Ebenaceae)

Comlan Mawussi Koudegnan — 2026-05-27

Background: The Sudanese savannas of Togo are rich in wild fruit trees with significant beekeeping and socioeconomic potential, including Vitex doniana Sweet and Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. These natural melliferous resources are overexploited in certain areas of the country, thus reducing their ecosystem benefits.

Aims: This study, conducted in the Binah prefecture, contributes to improving the sustainable management of spontaneous woody resources.

Methodology: Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups with a sample of 205 people. These interviews were conducted using a pre-established questionnaire or an interview guide, allowing for the targeting of individuals with proven knowledge of the species or resource persons designated by the groups. The methods of preserving these plants by the local populations were documented during these interviews.

Result: The seven (7) uses of Vitex doniana and Diospyros mespiliformis reported by local populations are: food, medicinal, fodder, timber, fuelwood, crafts, and oral hygiene. Food use was the most frequently cited. Conservation in agroecosystems and home gardens is identified as a key local strategy for managing natural resources. The vulnerability of these two species is a combined consequence of their high use value and their limited local domestication.

Conclusion: It is imperative to provide technical and financial support to local communities in implementing sustainable management strategies for these natural resources of high ecosystem value.

Spatial Variability and GIS-Based Mapping of Soil Physico-Chemical Properties under Different Land Use Systems in Pilibhit District, Uttar Pradesh, India

Rajesh Kumar — 2026-05-28

Spatial variability of soil properties is a common phenomenon in alluvial landscapes due to variations in parent material, topography, land use, drainage conditions, and anthropogenic interventions. Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) analysis provides valuable information regarding the utilization of natural resources and their impact on soil properties and environmental sustainability. The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the spatial variability and GIS-based distribution of soil physico-chemical properties under different land use systems of Pilibhit District. A total of 200 geo-referenced surface soil samples (0–15 cm depth) were collected from seven development blocks, namely Amaria, Barkhera, Bilsanda, Bisalpur, Lalaurikheda, Marauri, and Puranpur. Land use and land cover (LULC) analysis was performed using ArcGIS 10.3 and remote sensing techniques. GIS-based spatial interpolation of soil properties was carried out using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method to generate thematic distribution maps. The study area was dominated by agricultural land (71.75%), followed by forest area (18.58%). Soil samples were analyzed for texture, bulk density, porosity, pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, and available macro- and micronutrients. The soils varied from sandy loam to clay loam in texture, with loam soils being dominant. Soil pH ranged from 6.2 to 7.4, indicating slightly acidic to neutral reaction, while electrical conductivity remained within non-saline limits (<1 dS m⁻¹). Organic carbon content ranged from 0.20 to 1.26%, indicating moderate to high variability. Available nitrogen and zinc were identified as the major limiting nutrients, whereas phosphorus and potassium showed medium fertility status. Secondary nutrients and most micronutrients were generally adequate. GIS-based spatial distribution maps clearly demonstrated considerable heterogeneity in soil properties across different blocks due to variations in parent material, land use, management practices, and depositional environments. The findings highlight the importance of site-specific nutrient management, balanced fertilization, and zinc supplementation for improving soil fertility, sustaining crop productivity, and supporting precision agriculture-based land use planning in Pilibhit district.

Effects of Trellis Techniques on Growth, Development, and Yield of Dioscorea persimilis in Thai Nguyen, Vietnam

Nguyen Minh Tuan — 2026-05-29

Dioscorea persimilis is an important medicinal and nutritional climbing plant widely cultivated in northern Vietnam; however, limited information is available regarding suitable trellis techniques to improve its growth and productivity. The experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of different trellis systems on the growth, yield, and economic efficiency of the medicinal plant Dioscorea persimilis in Dinh Hoa district, Thai Nguyen province, Vietnam, during the 2024–2025 growing seasons. The study was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications included four treatments (T1, T2, T3, and T4). Various agronomic characteristics, yield components, tuber yield, and economic indicators were recorded to determine the suitability of different trellis systems for Hoai Son cultivation. The results revealed significant differences among the treatments at the 95% confidence level. Among the treatments, T2, which using a clustered trellis system, recorded the highest values for plant height (202.3 cm), stem diameter (3.7 mm), leaf length (10.9 cm), leaf width (6.7 cm), tuber weight (0.68 kg), and tuber yield (31.6 t ha⁻¹), along with the greatest economic return compared to the other treatments at the 95% confidence level. The superior performance of the clustered trellis system may be attributed to improved vine support, better canopy distribution, and enhanced light interception, thereby promoting vegetative growth and tuber development. In conclusion, the clustered trellis system is considered a promising cultivation technique for improving the productivity and economic efficiency of Hoai Son production in mountainous regions of northern Vietnam.